Volume 12, Issue 2 (2024)
Health Educ Health Promot 2024, 12(2): 261-271 |
Back to browse issues page
Download citation:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
Wan Othman W, Wan Jaafar W, Zainudin Z, Yusop Y. Resilience and Psychological Well-Being among Career Women. Health Educ Health Promot 2024; 12 (2) :261-271
URL: http://hehp.modares.ac.ir/article-5-73563-en.html
URL: http://hehp.modares.ac.ir/article-5-73563-en.html
1- Department of Counsellor Education and Counselling Psychology, Faculty of Educational Studies, University of Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
Keywords: Career Counseling [MeSH], Job Satisfaction [MeSH], Psychological Resilience [MeSH], Social Support [MeSH], Stress, Physiological [MeSH]
Full-Text [PDF 657 kb]
(766 Downloads)
| Abstract (HTML) (604 Views)
Full-Text: (155 Views)
Introduction
Resilience and psychological well-being have been studied over the past decade. They are considered significant themes in positive educational psychology, human development, and the life-span perspective field [1]. Resilience is a dynamic process that helps individuals adapt to unpleasant and stressful conditions. It is vital for maintaining psychological well-being [2]. Resilience is the ability to tolerate, control, and manage ongoing life challenges while preserving homeostasis despite the negative impacts of stress [3, 4]. As a dispositional trait or personal quality, resilience has been defined as the ability to overcome difficulties and thrive in the face of adversity. It is typically found in individuals who are physically resilient [5, 6].
In another definition, resilience is the ability of a person to encounter, overcome, and emerge improved or enlightened as a result of adversity [7]. According to the American Psychological Association [8], resilience involves adapting to adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or substantial stress factors, including family and relationship problems, severe health or employment conditions, and financial stressors. Resilience is a positive adaptation that leads an individual to beneficial adjustment [9]. It is also described as the capability to restore or maintain internal or external equilibrium in the face of significant external influences by utilizing human behaviors such as cognition and action [10]. Resilience is also defined as a person’s ability to recover or rebound from stressful circumstances in order to fully adjust to their surroundings [11, 12].
Psychological well-being has traditionally been defined as a collection of psychological traits associated with optimal human functioning [13]. According to Ryff [13], self-acceptance is one of six dimensions of psychological well-being, with the others being autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive interpersonal relationships, and a sense of life’s purpose. Self-acceptance is the most important element, encompassing self-actualization, optimal functioning, and the maturity of the individual [13]. This is followed by positive interpersonal relationships with others, where the individual can express feelings of empathy and cultivate love and friendship. Autonomy refers to independence and control of behavior through an internal locus of control. Environmental mastery is the ability to shape situations according to one’s health conditions. The sense of purpose in life involves feelings of intentionality and direction. Lastly, personal growth is defined as the realization of one’s potential, the ongoing development of oneself, and the pursuit of new challenges in all aspects of life [13].
Psychological well-being is also defined as the ability to perform psychological functions, reflecting the psychological health of an individual, which depends on their capacity to do so [14, 15]. Well-being, in terms of psychological well-being, is a broad notion that encompasses all areas of one’s daily existence influenced by one’s emotions. It is possible to assess negative psychological well-being through individual self-reporting in a straightforward manner [16]. According to Deci & Ryan [17], psychological well-being is commonly characterized as an integration of positive emotional experiences and optimal performance in personal and social life. The concept of psychological well-being has been examined in relation to resilience [18]. Adequate psychological coping skills, such as a positive outlook on the future, problem-solving abilities, and self-esteem, are necessary for resilience. Social supports, such as strong family or other relationships and access to healthcare when necessary, are also essential [19, 20]. The two variables have been found to correlate with each other. Many studies have examined the resilience and psychological well-being of people of all ages, including the elderly, students, and young children. This review focuses on the resilience and psychological well-being of working women.
Women who are employed are referred to as career women. According to some studies, working women experience greater levels of stress and pressure than working men [21]. Consequently, workplace stress is often accompanied by home stress, which significantly affects women’s life satisfaction, including life adjustment. Previous research has suggested that the combined effect of work and family stress can lead to poor health in the long run [22]. Without emotional awareness, effective time management, and social support, it becomes difficult for career women to thrive in both aspects of life. This implies that career women’s relationships and psychological well-being are influenced both positively and negatively by their professional lives. The increasing trend of successful working women currently calls for more attention to this topic. Therefore, this review study investigated the relationship between resilience and psychological well-being among working women. A more in-depth discussion of the study’s objectives is provided in the next section.
The objectives of this review were to identify the risk factors affecting the resilience and psychological well-being of career women, investigate the relationship between resilience and psychological well-being among career women, and determine the factors that counselors should consider when assisting career women in maintaining resilience and psychological well-being.
Information and Methods
A systematic search was conducted to find high-quality literature related to the study’s topic. This is crucial because it reduces the possibility of author bias and provides researchers with guidance in selecting relevant literature sources, which helps them identify gaps in the existing body of research.
Articles published between 2012 and 2021 were retrieved from Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed using keywords, including resilience, psychological well-being, and working women. Filtration was then performed by applying inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure that only relevant literature was obtained.
The inclusion criteria initially focused on the publication year, which was later expanded to encompass other factors, such as language, research disciplines, manuscript type, and research methodology. Given that the majority of reviews are written in English, the search was restricted to literature published in English only. The most prominent disciplines of the study were social sciences and psychology. The manuscript types included only journal articles and academic papers. Since this is a quantitative synthesis, only quantitative publications were included.
The initial search process using the keywords resulted in 11,527 articles. This number was reduced to 8,576 after restricting the publication year. Furthermore, eliminating non-English articles left 8,572 research articles. A total of 3,059 papers were eliminated because they were in subject areas not relevant to the study. The initial goal was to identify 30 best-fit journal articles, after which the search would be halted. However, upon careful scrutiny of the abstracts, only 14 articles were found to be directly relevant to the research objectives. To supplement these, additional articles were identified through references within these 14 articles. Ultimately, this process yielded a total of 21 articles for the final review.
The step-by-step selection process, from the initial search to the final inclusion of articles (Figure 1) depicts the systematic search strategy using the PRISMA diagram, highlighting the inclusion and exclusion criteria applied at each stage.
Figure 1. The PRISMA diagram of article search
Findings
A total of 21 articles were reviewed in this study in accordance with the research objectives (Table 1). The author, year of publication, study title, participants, country, and main findings of each study were clearly outlined. The literature included in this review consisted of studies conducted in various countries to ensure balanced findings.
Table 1. Summary of the selected literature
Risk factors for resilience and psychological well-being
Following an examination of the publications, it was discovered that seven articles addressed the risk factors for resilience and psychological well-being. According to Robert et al. [26], age is a risk factor for resilience. The study’s findings indicate that older individuals tend to have greater resilience in dealing with the stress and demands of their jobs. Age is associated with individual life experiences; older individuals have more life experiences and are further along in their life exposure compared to much younger individuals. This helps them problem-solve more easily and face obstacles more calmly, reflecting their maturity and personal growth [39]. Successful experiences assist individuals in learning how to cope with difficulties and manage the demands of everyday life.
Working experiences are also one of the risk factors for resilience [26, 43]. With age and job experience comes increased resiliency. The experience gained in the workplace provides individuals with a better understanding of how to address their problems, which indirectly increases their level of resilience. Additionally, Ang et al. [43] found that individuals with a more advanced level of educational qualification are better prepared to face new problems and take advantage of new opportunities. Higher self-efficacy was found to be associated with greater academic preparedness. Self-efficacy is described as individuals’ confidence in their ability to complete a task correctly and efficiently or to attain a specific goal in a given circumstance [43].
Furthermore, Ang et al. [43] discovered that the marital status of working women is a predictor of their level of resilience as well. Being married or having been married is associated with greater resilience. Marriage brings individuals closer to others and social groups, which can help them cope with stressful situations by providing mutual support. Females who work full-time and have been widowed or divorced exhibit a modest level of resilience. To develop resilience, a supportive environment is necessary [39].
In addition, a predictor of psychological well-being was identified during the review process. Chow et al. [39] reported that an individual’s age and level of education are important predictors of psychological well-being, especially during student years. Older students experience greater stress from academics. Furthermore, He et al. [24] found that resilience is a significant predictor of psychological well-being. Individuals with higher levels of resilience tend to have positive psychological well-being. Over time, resilience is a skill that is developed and shaped by one’s ability to overcome obstacles and face difficulties. It is crucial to reappraise unfavorable experiences, for example, by seeking positive meaning in stressful situations [24].
This result is similar to that of Klainin-Yobas et al. [37], where resilience was found to be associated with greater autonomy and growth, as well as a lesser negative triad. Resilience has been viewed as a dynamic interacting process, in which it is connected with biological, psychological, support systems, and social systems to encourage beneficial outcomes [37], promoting positive health outcomes and psychological well-being. An additional study conducted in China found that the ability to cope with difficulties may be an excellent predictor of psychological well-being [23]. This suggests that having greater resilience will aid in predicting psychological well-being. Furthermore, resilience also helps in overcoming stressful experiences [23], supporting the negative relationship between resilience and psychological stress, such as burnout [40].
Additionally, family support is a predictor of positive psychological well-being [24]. Greater support received from family members leads to improved psychological well-being, as supported by Gupta & Srivastava [40]. Family support is negatively associated with psychological stress in women. If a woman’s spouse does not cooperate, she may experience stress and burnout due to overwhelming responsibilities. In addition to family support, the employment role is also essential for determining psychological well-being, especially in women. Working women who have only one employment role in their lives tend to experience a higher level of psychological distress [30]. Women who focus solely on their employment roles may become excessively involved in their work, and devotion to one’s job can predict burnout. Men and women may experience different work-related stress and psychological anguish [30].
Next, self-esteem and power in the workplace are also predictors of psychological well-being for working women. A negative self-image can reduce one’s ability to exert control over their tasks [41]. Additionally, the research suggests that reduced decision authority is a gendered stressor that contributes to psychological discomfort in females. Women in the workforce who have more decision-making authority may experience less psychological suffering, both directly and indirectly, due to increased self-esteem [41]. Bogaerts et al. indicated that the effects of occupational stress and fear on workers’ psychological well-being can be detrimental; however, resilience protects workers from being harmed by individuals on the job, demonstrating its benefits [38]. Furthermore, according to Yan et al. [42], young, highly educated women who are unemployed and have poorer overall health are more likely to experience psychological distress than other women.
Relationship between resilience and psychological well-being in career women
Some research has found that resilience acts as both a mediator and a moderator in the relationship between psychological well-being and women, as well as individuals in general. Cole et al. emphasized that the positive link between academic stress and anxiety is attenuated by ego resilience, although this does not apply to the negative relationship between academic stress and depression [32]. Individuals who are ego-resilient are resourceful, can easily adapt to new situations, and recover from stress more quickly than their counterparts [32]. Resilience moderates the relationship between burnout and psychological health [29]. Stress reactions result from a combination of stressors and their interactions with one’s resources. An individual’s psychological health is enhanced when their level of resilience is strong [29].
According to Roohi et al. [36], the relationship between psychological well-being and cognitive emotion control methods is mediated by resilience and self-efficacy. The incorporation of positive emotions into one’s resilience can enhance coping efficiency when dealing with psychological stress. If an individual can both receive and express pleasant feelings, they enjoy a better state of mental health, become more resilient to challenges, and experience greater psychological well-being [36]. Research in Indonesia also indicates that resilience mediates the association between stress, depression, and anxiety in therapeutic practice [28]. High resilience in clinical practice partially reduces anxiety in challenging settings. Resilience may play a role in mediating the benefits of mindfulness and self-compassion on depression; however, the same has not been reported for anxiety [27]. Although resilience has been identified as a mediator of mindfulness, it has also been recognized as a moderator of the effect of mindfulness on other outcomes, such as emotion regulation and positive affect [27].
In addition to the mediating and moderating effects, a correlation between resilience and psychological well-being was identified in several reviews. It has been demonstrated that optimistic attitudes are positively related to nearly all measures of psychological well-being. Conversely, it has been established that experiencing a sense of powerlessness is detrimental to one’s psychological well-being [33]. Psychological well-being is predicted to have a positive association with resilience. Along with coping skills, psychological well-being is used to create resilient profiles, highlighting the most advantageous characteristics for managing stressful conditions [35]. Due to the significant link between resilience and extraversion, it is likely that the benefits of an upbeat affective style, the ability to form close relationships with others, and high levels of social contact and activity contribute to this relationship [35]. Intensivists experiencing burnout have lower engagement and resilience scores compared to those who do not experience burnout. In general, resilience is considered a protective trait against burnout, and researchers have discovered that burnout increases in correlation with decreasing resilience scores [25].
Resilience was also found to correlate with career stress. Obeidavi et al. [34] identified a statistically significant negative association between resilience and occupational stress. The results of the research indicate that the mean level of occupational stress exceeds the mean level of resilience. Female nurses exhibit a higher mean level of occupational stress compared to their level of resilience. The study also found that high levels of stress in women are likely due to the fact that, in addition to their professional responsibilities, they are also responsible for caring for their children and managing household chores, which exacerbates their stress levels [34].
The findings also demonstrate that the psychological well-being of female police officers may benefit from resilience training, which can have a positive impact. Female police officers experience improvements in overall resilience, job satisfaction, and psychological well-being, along with a reduction in occupational stress as a result of resilience training [31]. Chitra and Karunanidhi discovered that psychological resilience training effectively increases the resilience of warship soldiers, decreases fatigue symptoms, and enhances stress-coping abilities and overall mental health [31]. Resilience is also beneficial in reducing overall occupational stress as well as external stressors from family and friends. An additional benefit of resilience training is the reduction of occupational hazards, improvement of physiological working standards, alleviation of women-related stress, and mitigation of managerial stress. Furthermore, resilience training is effective in lowering psychological well-being indicators, such as anxiety and sadness. In the long run, increased psychological well-being may positively impact physical wellness [31].
Factors that counselors should consider when assisting career women in maintaining resilience and psychological well-being
In today’s fast-paced and demanding professional environments, career women often face unique challenges that can impact their psychological well-being. To support these women effectively, counselors need to consider several critical factors highlighted by recent research. Mindfulness is a powerful tool that has shown significant positive effects on psychological well-being. Research indicates that mindfulness is positively associated with self-compassion and resilience while being negatively correlated with anxiety and depression [36]. By incorporating mindfulness exercises and techniques into counseling sessions, counselors can help career women enhance their awareness, reduce stress, and improve their overall mental health. Mindfulness practices such as meditation, deep breathing exercises, and mindful walking can be beneficial in fostering a state of calm and focus.
It is essential to cultivate self-compassion to preserve psychological health. Self-compassion involves being compassionate, understanding, and forgiving toward oneself, especially when facing challenges or failures. Studies have shown that self-compassion is positively correlated with resilience and negatively associated with anxiety and depression [28]. Counselors can encourage self-compassion by helping career women develop practices that reduce self-criticism and promote self-kindness. Techniques, such as self-kindness exercises, guided self-compassion meditations, and reflective journaling can be integrated into counseling to nurture a more compassionate relationship with oneself. Furthermore, building resilience is essential for mitigating the impact of stress and enhancing well-being. Although resilience does not significantly mediate the effects of mindfulness and self-compassion on anxiety in the referenced study, it has a partial mediation effect on depressive symptomatology [26]. Resilience training programs and cognitive-behavioral strategies can help career women develop the capacity to bounce back from adversity. Counselors can focus on enhancing resilience through activities that promote problem-solving skills, emotional regulation, and positive thinking.
Younger and less experienced career women may experience higher levels of anxiety and depression compared to their older, more experienced counterparts. Tailoring interventions to address the specific challenges faced by younger women is important [26]. Mentorship programs, professional development opportunities, and targeted support can help younger career women build confidence, reduce stress, and enhance their psychological well-being. Counselors should consider age and experience when designing support strategies to ensure they meet the unique needs of their clients. Likewise, external factors such as social support play a significant role in enhancing psychological well-being. Encouraging career women to build and maintain strong support networks can provide essential emotional and practical assistance [33]. Counselors can assist by helping women identify and connect with supportive individuals, whether through family, friends, or professional groups. Social support can offer a sense of belonging and reduce feelings of isolation, both of which are crucial for maintaining mental health.
In addition, effective emotional regulation is a key component of resilience and well-being. Research indicates that resilience can mediate the effects of mindfulness on emotion regulation and positive affect [24]. Counselors should focus on strategies that enhance emotional regulation skills, such as cognitive restructuring, emotional awareness, and mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques. These strategies can help career women manage their emotions more effectively, leading to increased life satisfaction and reduced negative affect. Understanding the specific cultural and socioeconomic context is vital for providing relevant and timely support. The study highlighted the impact of the global economic crisis on mental health, suggesting that current socioeconomic conditions should be considered in counseling sessions [42]. Counselors should be aware of the broader context in which career women operate and tailor their interventions to address these external influences. This approach ensures that support strategies are not only effective but also culturally and contextually appropriate.
In conclusion, fostering resilience and psychological well-being in career women necessitates a multifaceted strategy that takes into account mindfulness, self-compassion, resilience, age and experience, social support, emotional regulation, psychological flexibility, and the cultural and socioeconomic context. By incorporating these elements into their practice, counselors can provide comprehensive and effective support to career women, enabling them to thrive both professionally and personally.
Discussion
This systematic literature review explored the relationship between resilience and psychological well-being among career women. We illuminated several critical factors that influence resilience and psychological well-being in career women, offering valuable insights for counselors and mental health practitioners. The research underscored the complex interplay between internal and external factors and how they collectively shape the mental health outcomes of career women. Firstly, the roles of mindfulness and self-compassion were highlighted as significant contributors to psychological well-being [44]. The findings confirm that mindfulness practices can enhance self-awareness, reduce stress, and foster a sense of calm, all of which are crucial for mental health. Similarly, self-compassion emerges as a vital component in mitigating anxiety and depression by promoting a kinder and more forgiving attitude toward oneself [44]. These practices can empower career women to better manage stress and maintain a positive outlook, which is essential for sustaining mental health in high-pressure environments. Resilience, although not significantly mediating the effects of mindfulness and self-compassion on anxiety, shows a partial mediation effect on depressive symptomatology. This suggests that while resilience is crucial for managing depression, its role in anxiety management may be more complex and influenced by other factors [27]. For instance, external stressors and individual differences in coping strategies might play significant roles. Additionally, age and experience are also significant risk factors for resilience [45]. TOlder individuals, with their extensive life experiences, demonstrate greater resilience in dealing with workplace stress. This maturity and personal growth contribute to better problem-solving abilities and a calmer approach to obstacles [46]. Conversely, younger and less experienced career women exhibit higher levels of anxiety and depression, highlighting the need for tailored interventions that address their specific challenges. Younger women may benefit more from mentorship programs and professional development opportunities that build confidence and resilience.
Social support is another critical factor in enhancing psychological well-being [46]. The presence of a strong support network, whether from family, friends, or professional groups, provides emotional and practical assistance that helps career women manage stress more effectively [20, 40]. This is particularly important for those who juggle multiple roles and responsibilities. Supportive environments can buffer against stress and promote mental health. Furthermore, emotional regulation and psychological flexibility are essential components of resilience and well-being [27]. Techniques that enhance these skills, such as cognitive restructuring and mindfulness-based stress reduction, can significantly improve life satisfaction and reduce negative effects. The ability to adapt and manage emotions effectively is crucial for maintaining psychological well-being [47]. The broader cultural and socioeconomic context also plays a vital role [45]. The impact of the global economic crisis on mental health, for instance, underscores the importance of considering external factors when designing support strategies. Tailoring interventions to the specific cultural and socioeconomic conditions, in which career women operate ensures that support is both relevant and effective.
In conclusion, this study identified critical characteristics influencing resilience and psychological well-being in working women, providing valuable insights for mental health professionals. Mindfulness and self-compassion emerged as important contributors to mental health, increasing self-awareness and reducing stress. Resilience is vital for addressing depression, but its impact on anxiety is more nuanced. Age and experience are critical for developing resilience, with older individuals demonstrating greater resilience due to their life experiences. Social support is essential for stress management, highlighting the importance of strong support networks. Emotional regulation and psychological flexibility are also crucial for well-being. Finally, considering the broader cultural and socioeconomic context ensures that support initiatives remain relevant and effective.
The findings of the review identified several predictors of resilience and psychological well-being. This information is valuable for counselors, as it highlights what is important for supporting and assisting working women in increasing resilience and maintaining positive psychological well-being. The findings indicated that counselors must consider, understand, and acknowledge that age and life or work events can both contribute to the development of individual resilience [26, 43]. The knowledge and skills acquired in the workplace provide individuals with a better understanding of how to address their challenges, which indirectly enhances their level of resilience. As individuals age and gain more work experience, their experiences will expand. When counselors engage with working women to help them build their resilience, they can draw on the women’s previous successful experiences to support them in the resilience training they are receiving.
Resilience is one of the predictors of psychological well-being. Women’s resilience must be encouraged to improve all aspects of their psychological well-being. From this perspective, resilience has been conceptualized as being related to biological, psychological, support, and social systems that promote favorable outcomes [37]. Therefore, when providing professional assistance and support to women, counselors must be aware of their resilience and help channel an approach to build it, which will assist them in maintaining positive psychological well-being. This will benefit career women in overcoming burnout and emotional distress from work or home.
Additionally, in a counseling session for working women, the next goal for the counselor will be to help clients increase their self-esteem. Increased self-esteem will aid in reducing psychological suffering [41]. Women in the workplace who have high self-esteem are more confident when facing challenges at work. Once their self-esteem is strong, they will feel more competent and confident in managing their tasks, which will reduce their psychological distress. Counseling interventions during sessions must, therefore, consider appropriate techniques aimed at improving clients’ self-esteem so that working women can cope better with the stress of their jobs.
Lastly, social and family support is also important for working women in building their resilience and psychological well-being. Social support received from family members is crucial for women to maintain a positive state of psychological well-being [24]. Specifically, support from husbands for married and working women is particularly important, as it helps them cope with stressful situations at work by providing mutual support [43]. As a result, counselors must be knowledgeable about social and family support for working women and ensure that clients understand the importance of seeking and receiving support from significant individuals. Family counseling sessions can be beneficial for struggling working women, helping them strengthen their social and family support, thereby building resilience and maintaining psychological well-being.
This study can contribute to the theoretical understanding of resilience and psychological well-being by highlighting the complex interplay between various factors. It underscored the need for a multifaceted approach to studying psychological health, considering both internal traits, such as mindfulness and self-compassion, as well as external factors, like social support and socioeconomic conditions.
Future research should consider longitudinal studies to better understand the dynamics of the relationship between resilience and psychological well-being over time. Since the study primarily focuses on career women, further research could also explore these relationships in different demographic groups to enhance generalizability. Finally, the socioeconomic and cultural context should be examined more deeply to tailor interventions effectively.
Conclusion
Age, life experience, work experience, marital status, level of education, and self-efficacy are key predictors of resilience.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia for awarding the Putra Grant (GP-IPM/2021/9695900) and for financing the completion of this study. Our appreciation also extends to the Publication and Citation Unit in the Faculty of Educational Studies at Universiti Putra Malaysia for their assistance and guidance in completing this writing.
Ethical Permissions: This research adhered to the ethical protocols established by the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects of the Research Management Center at Universiti Putra Malaysia. The ethical reference number is JKEUPM-2023-906.
Conflicts of Interests: The authors declared no conflicts of interests.
Authors’ Contribution: Wan Norhayati WO (First Author), Introduction Writer/Main Researcher/Methodologist/Discussion Writer (35%); Wan Marzuki WJ (Second Author), Main Researcher/Methodologist/Discussion Writer (30%); Zaida Nor Z (Third Author), Methodologist/Discussion Writer (20%); Yusni MY (Fourth Author), Introduction Writer/Discussion Writer (15%)
Funding/Support: This project was funded using the Putra Grant (GP-IPM/2021/9695900) awarded by Universiti Putra of Malaysia.
Resilience and psychological well-being have been studied over the past decade. They are considered significant themes in positive educational psychology, human development, and the life-span perspective field [1]. Resilience is a dynamic process that helps individuals adapt to unpleasant and stressful conditions. It is vital for maintaining psychological well-being [2]. Resilience is the ability to tolerate, control, and manage ongoing life challenges while preserving homeostasis despite the negative impacts of stress [3, 4]. As a dispositional trait or personal quality, resilience has been defined as the ability to overcome difficulties and thrive in the face of adversity. It is typically found in individuals who are physically resilient [5, 6].
In another definition, resilience is the ability of a person to encounter, overcome, and emerge improved or enlightened as a result of adversity [7]. According to the American Psychological Association [8], resilience involves adapting to adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or substantial stress factors, including family and relationship problems, severe health or employment conditions, and financial stressors. Resilience is a positive adaptation that leads an individual to beneficial adjustment [9]. It is also described as the capability to restore or maintain internal or external equilibrium in the face of significant external influences by utilizing human behaviors such as cognition and action [10]. Resilience is also defined as a person’s ability to recover or rebound from stressful circumstances in order to fully adjust to their surroundings [11, 12].
Psychological well-being has traditionally been defined as a collection of psychological traits associated with optimal human functioning [13]. According to Ryff [13], self-acceptance is one of six dimensions of psychological well-being, with the others being autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive interpersonal relationships, and a sense of life’s purpose. Self-acceptance is the most important element, encompassing self-actualization, optimal functioning, and the maturity of the individual [13]. This is followed by positive interpersonal relationships with others, where the individual can express feelings of empathy and cultivate love and friendship. Autonomy refers to independence and control of behavior through an internal locus of control. Environmental mastery is the ability to shape situations according to one’s health conditions. The sense of purpose in life involves feelings of intentionality and direction. Lastly, personal growth is defined as the realization of one’s potential, the ongoing development of oneself, and the pursuit of new challenges in all aspects of life [13].
Psychological well-being is also defined as the ability to perform psychological functions, reflecting the psychological health of an individual, which depends on their capacity to do so [14, 15]. Well-being, in terms of psychological well-being, is a broad notion that encompasses all areas of one’s daily existence influenced by one’s emotions. It is possible to assess negative psychological well-being through individual self-reporting in a straightforward manner [16]. According to Deci & Ryan [17], psychological well-being is commonly characterized as an integration of positive emotional experiences and optimal performance in personal and social life. The concept of psychological well-being has been examined in relation to resilience [18]. Adequate psychological coping skills, such as a positive outlook on the future, problem-solving abilities, and self-esteem, are necessary for resilience. Social supports, such as strong family or other relationships and access to healthcare when necessary, are also essential [19, 20]. The two variables have been found to correlate with each other. Many studies have examined the resilience and psychological well-being of people of all ages, including the elderly, students, and young children. This review focuses on the resilience and psychological well-being of working women.
Women who are employed are referred to as career women. According to some studies, working women experience greater levels of stress and pressure than working men [21]. Consequently, workplace stress is often accompanied by home stress, which significantly affects women’s life satisfaction, including life adjustment. Previous research has suggested that the combined effect of work and family stress can lead to poor health in the long run [22]. Without emotional awareness, effective time management, and social support, it becomes difficult for career women to thrive in both aspects of life. This implies that career women’s relationships and psychological well-being are influenced both positively and negatively by their professional lives. The increasing trend of successful working women currently calls for more attention to this topic. Therefore, this review study investigated the relationship between resilience and psychological well-being among working women. A more in-depth discussion of the study’s objectives is provided in the next section.
The objectives of this review were to identify the risk factors affecting the resilience and psychological well-being of career women, investigate the relationship between resilience and psychological well-being among career women, and determine the factors that counselors should consider when assisting career women in maintaining resilience and psychological well-being.
Information and Methods
A systematic search was conducted to find high-quality literature related to the study’s topic. This is crucial because it reduces the possibility of author bias and provides researchers with guidance in selecting relevant literature sources, which helps them identify gaps in the existing body of research.
Articles published between 2012 and 2021 were retrieved from Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed using keywords, including resilience, psychological well-being, and working women. Filtration was then performed by applying inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure that only relevant literature was obtained.
The inclusion criteria initially focused on the publication year, which was later expanded to encompass other factors, such as language, research disciplines, manuscript type, and research methodology. Given that the majority of reviews are written in English, the search was restricted to literature published in English only. The most prominent disciplines of the study were social sciences and psychology. The manuscript types included only journal articles and academic papers. Since this is a quantitative synthesis, only quantitative publications were included.
The initial search process using the keywords resulted in 11,527 articles. This number was reduced to 8,576 after restricting the publication year. Furthermore, eliminating non-English articles left 8,572 research articles. A total of 3,059 papers were eliminated because they were in subject areas not relevant to the study. The initial goal was to identify 30 best-fit journal articles, after which the search would be halted. However, upon careful scrutiny of the abstracts, only 14 articles were found to be directly relevant to the research objectives. To supplement these, additional articles were identified through references within these 14 articles. Ultimately, this process yielded a total of 21 articles for the final review.
The step-by-step selection process, from the initial search to the final inclusion of articles (Figure 1) depicts the systematic search strategy using the PRISMA diagram, highlighting the inclusion and exclusion criteria applied at each stage.
Figure 1. The PRISMA diagram of article search
Findings
A total of 21 articles were reviewed in this study in accordance with the research objectives (Table 1). The author, year of publication, study title, participants, country, and main findings of each study were clearly outlined. The literature included in this review consisted of studies conducted in various countries to ensure balanced findings.
Table 1. Summary of the selected literature
Risk factors for resilience and psychological well-being
Following an examination of the publications, it was discovered that seven articles addressed the risk factors for resilience and psychological well-being. According to Robert et al. [26], age is a risk factor for resilience. The study’s findings indicate that older individuals tend to have greater resilience in dealing with the stress and demands of their jobs. Age is associated with individual life experiences; older individuals have more life experiences and are further along in their life exposure compared to much younger individuals. This helps them problem-solve more easily and face obstacles more calmly, reflecting their maturity and personal growth [39]. Successful experiences assist individuals in learning how to cope with difficulties and manage the demands of everyday life.
Working experiences are also one of the risk factors for resilience [26, 43]. With age and job experience comes increased resiliency. The experience gained in the workplace provides individuals with a better understanding of how to address their problems, which indirectly increases their level of resilience. Additionally, Ang et al. [43] found that individuals with a more advanced level of educational qualification are better prepared to face new problems and take advantage of new opportunities. Higher self-efficacy was found to be associated with greater academic preparedness. Self-efficacy is described as individuals’ confidence in their ability to complete a task correctly and efficiently or to attain a specific goal in a given circumstance [43].
Furthermore, Ang et al. [43] discovered that the marital status of working women is a predictor of their level of resilience as well. Being married or having been married is associated with greater resilience. Marriage brings individuals closer to others and social groups, which can help them cope with stressful situations by providing mutual support. Females who work full-time and have been widowed or divorced exhibit a modest level of resilience. To develop resilience, a supportive environment is necessary [39].
In addition, a predictor of psychological well-being was identified during the review process. Chow et al. [39] reported that an individual’s age and level of education are important predictors of psychological well-being, especially during student years. Older students experience greater stress from academics. Furthermore, He et al. [24] found that resilience is a significant predictor of psychological well-being. Individuals with higher levels of resilience tend to have positive psychological well-being. Over time, resilience is a skill that is developed and shaped by one’s ability to overcome obstacles and face difficulties. It is crucial to reappraise unfavorable experiences, for example, by seeking positive meaning in stressful situations [24].
This result is similar to that of Klainin-Yobas et al. [37], where resilience was found to be associated with greater autonomy and growth, as well as a lesser negative triad. Resilience has been viewed as a dynamic interacting process, in which it is connected with biological, psychological, support systems, and social systems to encourage beneficial outcomes [37], promoting positive health outcomes and psychological well-being. An additional study conducted in China found that the ability to cope with difficulties may be an excellent predictor of psychological well-being [23]. This suggests that having greater resilience will aid in predicting psychological well-being. Furthermore, resilience also helps in overcoming stressful experiences [23], supporting the negative relationship between resilience and psychological stress, such as burnout [40].
Additionally, family support is a predictor of positive psychological well-being [24]. Greater support received from family members leads to improved psychological well-being, as supported by Gupta & Srivastava [40]. Family support is negatively associated with psychological stress in women. If a woman’s spouse does not cooperate, she may experience stress and burnout due to overwhelming responsibilities. In addition to family support, the employment role is also essential for determining psychological well-being, especially in women. Working women who have only one employment role in their lives tend to experience a higher level of psychological distress [30]. Women who focus solely on their employment roles may become excessively involved in their work, and devotion to one’s job can predict burnout. Men and women may experience different work-related stress and psychological anguish [30].
Next, self-esteem and power in the workplace are also predictors of psychological well-being for working women. A negative self-image can reduce one’s ability to exert control over their tasks [41]. Additionally, the research suggests that reduced decision authority is a gendered stressor that contributes to psychological discomfort in females. Women in the workforce who have more decision-making authority may experience less psychological suffering, both directly and indirectly, due to increased self-esteem [41]. Bogaerts et al. indicated that the effects of occupational stress and fear on workers’ psychological well-being can be detrimental; however, resilience protects workers from being harmed by individuals on the job, demonstrating its benefits [38]. Furthermore, according to Yan et al. [42], young, highly educated women who are unemployed and have poorer overall health are more likely to experience psychological distress than other women.
Relationship between resilience and psychological well-being in career women
Some research has found that resilience acts as both a mediator and a moderator in the relationship between psychological well-being and women, as well as individuals in general. Cole et al. emphasized that the positive link between academic stress and anxiety is attenuated by ego resilience, although this does not apply to the negative relationship between academic stress and depression [32]. Individuals who are ego-resilient are resourceful, can easily adapt to new situations, and recover from stress more quickly than their counterparts [32]. Resilience moderates the relationship between burnout and psychological health [29]. Stress reactions result from a combination of stressors and their interactions with one’s resources. An individual’s psychological health is enhanced when their level of resilience is strong [29].
According to Roohi et al. [36], the relationship between psychological well-being and cognitive emotion control methods is mediated by resilience and self-efficacy. The incorporation of positive emotions into one’s resilience can enhance coping efficiency when dealing with psychological stress. If an individual can both receive and express pleasant feelings, they enjoy a better state of mental health, become more resilient to challenges, and experience greater psychological well-being [36]. Research in Indonesia also indicates that resilience mediates the association between stress, depression, and anxiety in therapeutic practice [28]. High resilience in clinical practice partially reduces anxiety in challenging settings. Resilience may play a role in mediating the benefits of mindfulness and self-compassion on depression; however, the same has not been reported for anxiety [27]. Although resilience has been identified as a mediator of mindfulness, it has also been recognized as a moderator of the effect of mindfulness on other outcomes, such as emotion regulation and positive affect [27].
In addition to the mediating and moderating effects, a correlation between resilience and psychological well-being was identified in several reviews. It has been demonstrated that optimistic attitudes are positively related to nearly all measures of psychological well-being. Conversely, it has been established that experiencing a sense of powerlessness is detrimental to one’s psychological well-being [33]. Psychological well-being is predicted to have a positive association with resilience. Along with coping skills, psychological well-being is used to create resilient profiles, highlighting the most advantageous characteristics for managing stressful conditions [35]. Due to the significant link between resilience and extraversion, it is likely that the benefits of an upbeat affective style, the ability to form close relationships with others, and high levels of social contact and activity contribute to this relationship [35]. Intensivists experiencing burnout have lower engagement and resilience scores compared to those who do not experience burnout. In general, resilience is considered a protective trait against burnout, and researchers have discovered that burnout increases in correlation with decreasing resilience scores [25].
Resilience was also found to correlate with career stress. Obeidavi et al. [34] identified a statistically significant negative association between resilience and occupational stress. The results of the research indicate that the mean level of occupational stress exceeds the mean level of resilience. Female nurses exhibit a higher mean level of occupational stress compared to their level of resilience. The study also found that high levels of stress in women are likely due to the fact that, in addition to their professional responsibilities, they are also responsible for caring for their children and managing household chores, which exacerbates their stress levels [34].
The findings also demonstrate that the psychological well-being of female police officers may benefit from resilience training, which can have a positive impact. Female police officers experience improvements in overall resilience, job satisfaction, and psychological well-being, along with a reduction in occupational stress as a result of resilience training [31]. Chitra and Karunanidhi discovered that psychological resilience training effectively increases the resilience of warship soldiers, decreases fatigue symptoms, and enhances stress-coping abilities and overall mental health [31]. Resilience is also beneficial in reducing overall occupational stress as well as external stressors from family and friends. An additional benefit of resilience training is the reduction of occupational hazards, improvement of physiological working standards, alleviation of women-related stress, and mitigation of managerial stress. Furthermore, resilience training is effective in lowering psychological well-being indicators, such as anxiety and sadness. In the long run, increased psychological well-being may positively impact physical wellness [31].
Factors that counselors should consider when assisting career women in maintaining resilience and psychological well-being
In today’s fast-paced and demanding professional environments, career women often face unique challenges that can impact their psychological well-being. To support these women effectively, counselors need to consider several critical factors highlighted by recent research. Mindfulness is a powerful tool that has shown significant positive effects on psychological well-being. Research indicates that mindfulness is positively associated with self-compassion and resilience while being negatively correlated with anxiety and depression [36]. By incorporating mindfulness exercises and techniques into counseling sessions, counselors can help career women enhance their awareness, reduce stress, and improve their overall mental health. Mindfulness practices such as meditation, deep breathing exercises, and mindful walking can be beneficial in fostering a state of calm and focus.
It is essential to cultivate self-compassion to preserve psychological health. Self-compassion involves being compassionate, understanding, and forgiving toward oneself, especially when facing challenges or failures. Studies have shown that self-compassion is positively correlated with resilience and negatively associated with anxiety and depression [28]. Counselors can encourage self-compassion by helping career women develop practices that reduce self-criticism and promote self-kindness. Techniques, such as self-kindness exercises, guided self-compassion meditations, and reflective journaling can be integrated into counseling to nurture a more compassionate relationship with oneself. Furthermore, building resilience is essential for mitigating the impact of stress and enhancing well-being. Although resilience does not significantly mediate the effects of mindfulness and self-compassion on anxiety in the referenced study, it has a partial mediation effect on depressive symptomatology [26]. Resilience training programs and cognitive-behavioral strategies can help career women develop the capacity to bounce back from adversity. Counselors can focus on enhancing resilience through activities that promote problem-solving skills, emotional regulation, and positive thinking.
Younger and less experienced career women may experience higher levels of anxiety and depression compared to their older, more experienced counterparts. Tailoring interventions to address the specific challenges faced by younger women is important [26]. Mentorship programs, professional development opportunities, and targeted support can help younger career women build confidence, reduce stress, and enhance their psychological well-being. Counselors should consider age and experience when designing support strategies to ensure they meet the unique needs of their clients. Likewise, external factors such as social support play a significant role in enhancing psychological well-being. Encouraging career women to build and maintain strong support networks can provide essential emotional and practical assistance [33]. Counselors can assist by helping women identify and connect with supportive individuals, whether through family, friends, or professional groups. Social support can offer a sense of belonging and reduce feelings of isolation, both of which are crucial for maintaining mental health.
In addition, effective emotional regulation is a key component of resilience and well-being. Research indicates that resilience can mediate the effects of mindfulness on emotion regulation and positive affect [24]. Counselors should focus on strategies that enhance emotional regulation skills, such as cognitive restructuring, emotional awareness, and mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques. These strategies can help career women manage their emotions more effectively, leading to increased life satisfaction and reduced negative affect. Understanding the specific cultural and socioeconomic context is vital for providing relevant and timely support. The study highlighted the impact of the global economic crisis on mental health, suggesting that current socioeconomic conditions should be considered in counseling sessions [42]. Counselors should be aware of the broader context in which career women operate and tailor their interventions to address these external influences. This approach ensures that support strategies are not only effective but also culturally and contextually appropriate.
In conclusion, fostering resilience and psychological well-being in career women necessitates a multifaceted strategy that takes into account mindfulness, self-compassion, resilience, age and experience, social support, emotional regulation, psychological flexibility, and the cultural and socioeconomic context. By incorporating these elements into their practice, counselors can provide comprehensive and effective support to career women, enabling them to thrive both professionally and personally.
Discussion
This systematic literature review explored the relationship between resilience and psychological well-being among career women. We illuminated several critical factors that influence resilience and psychological well-being in career women, offering valuable insights for counselors and mental health practitioners. The research underscored the complex interplay between internal and external factors and how they collectively shape the mental health outcomes of career women. Firstly, the roles of mindfulness and self-compassion were highlighted as significant contributors to psychological well-being [44]. The findings confirm that mindfulness practices can enhance self-awareness, reduce stress, and foster a sense of calm, all of which are crucial for mental health. Similarly, self-compassion emerges as a vital component in mitigating anxiety and depression by promoting a kinder and more forgiving attitude toward oneself [44]. These practices can empower career women to better manage stress and maintain a positive outlook, which is essential for sustaining mental health in high-pressure environments. Resilience, although not significantly mediating the effects of mindfulness and self-compassion on anxiety, shows a partial mediation effect on depressive symptomatology. This suggests that while resilience is crucial for managing depression, its role in anxiety management may be more complex and influenced by other factors [27]. For instance, external stressors and individual differences in coping strategies might play significant roles. Additionally, age and experience are also significant risk factors for resilience [45]. TOlder individuals, with their extensive life experiences, demonstrate greater resilience in dealing with workplace stress. This maturity and personal growth contribute to better problem-solving abilities and a calmer approach to obstacles [46]. Conversely, younger and less experienced career women exhibit higher levels of anxiety and depression, highlighting the need for tailored interventions that address their specific challenges. Younger women may benefit more from mentorship programs and professional development opportunities that build confidence and resilience.
Social support is another critical factor in enhancing psychological well-being [46]. The presence of a strong support network, whether from family, friends, or professional groups, provides emotional and practical assistance that helps career women manage stress more effectively [20, 40]. This is particularly important for those who juggle multiple roles and responsibilities. Supportive environments can buffer against stress and promote mental health. Furthermore, emotional regulation and psychological flexibility are essential components of resilience and well-being [27]. Techniques that enhance these skills, such as cognitive restructuring and mindfulness-based stress reduction, can significantly improve life satisfaction and reduce negative effects. The ability to adapt and manage emotions effectively is crucial for maintaining psychological well-being [47]. The broader cultural and socioeconomic context also plays a vital role [45]. The impact of the global economic crisis on mental health, for instance, underscores the importance of considering external factors when designing support strategies. Tailoring interventions to the specific cultural and socioeconomic conditions, in which career women operate ensures that support is both relevant and effective.
In conclusion, this study identified critical characteristics influencing resilience and psychological well-being in working women, providing valuable insights for mental health professionals. Mindfulness and self-compassion emerged as important contributors to mental health, increasing self-awareness and reducing stress. Resilience is vital for addressing depression, but its impact on anxiety is more nuanced. Age and experience are critical for developing resilience, with older individuals demonstrating greater resilience due to their life experiences. Social support is essential for stress management, highlighting the importance of strong support networks. Emotional regulation and psychological flexibility are also crucial for well-being. Finally, considering the broader cultural and socioeconomic context ensures that support initiatives remain relevant and effective.
The findings of the review identified several predictors of resilience and psychological well-being. This information is valuable for counselors, as it highlights what is important for supporting and assisting working women in increasing resilience and maintaining positive psychological well-being. The findings indicated that counselors must consider, understand, and acknowledge that age and life or work events can both contribute to the development of individual resilience [26, 43]. The knowledge and skills acquired in the workplace provide individuals with a better understanding of how to address their challenges, which indirectly enhances their level of resilience. As individuals age and gain more work experience, their experiences will expand. When counselors engage with working women to help them build their resilience, they can draw on the women’s previous successful experiences to support them in the resilience training they are receiving.
Resilience is one of the predictors of psychological well-being. Women’s resilience must be encouraged to improve all aspects of their psychological well-being. From this perspective, resilience has been conceptualized as being related to biological, psychological, support, and social systems that promote favorable outcomes [37]. Therefore, when providing professional assistance and support to women, counselors must be aware of their resilience and help channel an approach to build it, which will assist them in maintaining positive psychological well-being. This will benefit career women in overcoming burnout and emotional distress from work or home.
Additionally, in a counseling session for working women, the next goal for the counselor will be to help clients increase their self-esteem. Increased self-esteem will aid in reducing psychological suffering [41]. Women in the workplace who have high self-esteem are more confident when facing challenges at work. Once their self-esteem is strong, they will feel more competent and confident in managing their tasks, which will reduce their psychological distress. Counseling interventions during sessions must, therefore, consider appropriate techniques aimed at improving clients’ self-esteem so that working women can cope better with the stress of their jobs.
Lastly, social and family support is also important for working women in building their resilience and psychological well-being. Social support received from family members is crucial for women to maintain a positive state of psychological well-being [24]. Specifically, support from husbands for married and working women is particularly important, as it helps them cope with stressful situations at work by providing mutual support [43]. As a result, counselors must be knowledgeable about social and family support for working women and ensure that clients understand the importance of seeking and receiving support from significant individuals. Family counseling sessions can be beneficial for struggling working women, helping them strengthen their social and family support, thereby building resilience and maintaining psychological well-being.
This study can contribute to the theoretical understanding of resilience and psychological well-being by highlighting the complex interplay between various factors. It underscored the need for a multifaceted approach to studying psychological health, considering both internal traits, such as mindfulness and self-compassion, as well as external factors, like social support and socioeconomic conditions.
Future research should consider longitudinal studies to better understand the dynamics of the relationship between resilience and psychological well-being over time. Since the study primarily focuses on career women, further research could also explore these relationships in different demographic groups to enhance generalizability. Finally, the socioeconomic and cultural context should be examined more deeply to tailor interventions effectively.
Conclusion
Age, life experience, work experience, marital status, level of education, and self-efficacy are key predictors of resilience.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia for awarding the Putra Grant (GP-IPM/2021/9695900) and for financing the completion of this study. Our appreciation also extends to the Publication and Citation Unit in the Faculty of Educational Studies at Universiti Putra Malaysia for their assistance and guidance in completing this writing.
Ethical Permissions: This research adhered to the ethical protocols established by the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects of the Research Management Center at Universiti Putra Malaysia. The ethical reference number is JKEUPM-2023-906.
Conflicts of Interests: The authors declared no conflicts of interests.
Authors’ Contribution: Wan Norhayati WO (First Author), Introduction Writer/Main Researcher/Methodologist/Discussion Writer (35%); Wan Marzuki WJ (Second Author), Main Researcher/Methodologist/Discussion Writer (30%); Zaida Nor Z (Third Author), Methodologist/Discussion Writer (20%); Yusni MY (Fourth Author), Introduction Writer/Discussion Writer (15%)
Funding/Support: This project was funded using the Putra Grant (GP-IPM/2021/9695900) awarded by Universiti Putra of Malaysia.
Article Type: Systematic Review |
Subject:
Quality of Life
Received: 2024/01/23 | Accepted: 2024/05/22 | Published: 2024/06/28
Received: 2024/01/23 | Accepted: 2024/05/22 | Published: 2024/06/28
References
1. Ryff CD, Singer B, Love GD, Essex MJ. Resilience in adulthood and later life: Defining features and dynamic processes. In: Lomranz J, editor. Handbook of aging and mental health: An integrative approach. New York: Plenum Press; 1998. p. 69-96. [Link] [DOI:10.1007/978-1-4899-0098-2_4]
2. Reyes AT, Andrusyszyn MA, Iwasiw C, Forchuk C, Babenko-Mould Y. Nursing students' understanding and enactment of resilience: A grounded theory study. J Adv Nurs. 2015;71(11):2622-33. [Link] [DOI:10.1111/jan.12730]
3. Schetter CD, Dolbier C. Resilience in the context of chronic stress and health in adults. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2011;5(9):634-52. [Link] [DOI:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00379.x]
4. DiCorcia JA, Tronick E. Quotidian resilience: Exploring mechanisms that drive resilience from a perspective of everyday stress and coping. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2011;35(7):1593-602. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.04.008]
5. Richardson GE. The metatheory of resilience and resiliency. J Clin Psychol. 2002;58(3):307-21. [Link] [DOI:10.1002/jclp.10020]
6. Sinclair RR, Oliver C. Development and validation of a short measure of hardiness. Portland: Portland State University, Department of Psychology; 2003. [Link]
7. Grotberg EH, editor. Resilience for today: Gaining strength from adversity. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group; 2003. [Link] [DOI:10.5040/9798216007999]
8. American Psychological Association. The road to resilience: What is resilience? [Internet]. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2011 [cited 2023, September, 10]. Available from: https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience [Link]
9. Windle G. What is resilience? A review and concept analysis. Rev Clin Gerontol. 2011;21(2):152-69. [Link] [DOI:10.1017/S0959259810000420]
10. Smith C, Carlson BE. Stress, coping, and resilience in children and youth. Soc Serv Rev. 1997;71(2):231-56. [Link] [DOI:10.1086/604249]
11. Smith BW, Dalen J, Wiggins K, Tooley E, Christopher P, Bernard J. The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. Int J Behav Med. 2008;15(3):194-200. [Link] [DOI:10.1080/10705500802222972]
12. Tusaie K, Dyer J. Resilience: A historical review of the construct. Holist Nurs Pract. 2004;18(1):3-10. [Link] [DOI:10.1097/00004650-200401000-00002]
13. Ryff CD. Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1989;57(6):1069-81. [Link] [DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069]
14. Bradburn NM. The structure of psychological well-being. New York: Aldine Publishing Company; 1969. [Link] [DOI:10.1037/t10756-000]
15. Muqodas I, Kartadinata S, Nurihsan J, Dahlan T, Yusuf S, Imaddudin A. Psychological well-being: A preliminary study of guidance and counseling services development of preservice teachers in Indonesia. Adv Soc Sci Educ Humanit Res. 2020;399:56-60. [Link] [DOI:10.2991/assehr.k.200130.080]
16. Warr P. A study of psychological well-being. Br J Psychol. 1978;69(1):111-21. [Link] [DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1978.tb01638.x]
17. Deci EL, Ryan RM. Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. J Happiness Stud. 2008;9(1):1-11. [Link] [DOI:10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1]
18. Picardi A, Bartone PT, Querci R, Bitetti D, Tarsitani L, Roselli V, et al. Development and validation of the Italian version of the 15-item dispositional resilience scale. Riv Psichiatr. 2012;47(3):231-7. [Link] [DOI:10.1037/t69210-000]
19. Van Kessel G. The ability of older people to overcome adversity: A review of the resilience concept. Geriatr Nurs. 2013;34(2):122-7. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2012.12.011]
20. Conder JA, Mirfin-Veitch BF, Gates S. Risk and resilience factors in the mental health and well-being of women with intellectual disability. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil. 2015;28(6):572-83. [Link] [DOI:10.1111/jar.12153]
21. Lundberg U. Influence of paid and unpaid work on psychophysiological stress responses of men and women. J Occup Health Psychol. 1996;1(2):117-30. [Link] [DOI:10.1037/1076-8998.1.2.117]
22. Loerbroks A, Ding H, Han W, Wang H, Wu J-P, Yang L, et al. Work stress, family stress and asthma: A cross-sectional study among women in China. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2017;90(4):349-56. [Link] [DOI:10.1007/s00420-017-1201-7]
23. Smith GD, Yang F. Stress, resilience and psychological well-being in Chinese undergraduate nursing students. Nurse Educ Today. 2017;49:90-5. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.nedt.2016.10.004]
24. He FX, Turnbull B, Kirshbaum MN, Phillips B, Klainin-Yobas P. Assessing stress, protective factors and psychological well-being among undergraduate nursing students. Nurse Educ Today. 2018;68:4-12. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.nedt.2018.05.013]
25. Meynaar IA, Ottens T, Zegers M, Van Mol MMC, Van Der Horst ICC. Burnout, resilience and work engagement among Dutch intensivists in the aftermath of the COVID-19 crisis: A nationwide survey. J Crit Care. 2021;62:1-5. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.11.010]
26. Roberts NJ, McAloney-Kocaman K, Lippiett K, Ray E, Welch L, Kelly C. Levels of resilience, anxiety and depression in nurses working in respiratory clinical areas during the COVID pandemic. Respir Med. 2021;176:106219. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.rmed.2020.106219]
27. Pérez-Aranda A, García-Campayo J, Gude F, Luciano JV, Feliu-Soler A, González-Quintela A, et al. Impact of mindfulness and self-compassion on anxiety and depression: The mediating role of resilience. Int J Clin Health Psychol. 2021;21(2):100229. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.ijchp.2021.100229]
28. Devi HM, Purborini N, Chang HJ. Mediating effect of resilience on association among stress, depression, and anxiety in Indonesian nursing students. J Prof Nurs. 2021;37(4):706-13. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.profnurs.2021.04.004]
29. García-Izquierdo M, Ríos-Risquez MI, Carrillo-García C, Sabuco-Tebar EÁ. The moderating role of resilience in the relationship between academic burnout and the perception of psychological health in nursing students. Educ Psychol. 2018;38(8):1068-79. [Link] [DOI:10.1080/01443410.2017.1383073]
30. Honda A, Abe Y, Date Y, Honda S. The impact of multiple roles on psychological distress among Japanese workers. Saf Health Work. 2015;6(2):114-9. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.shaw.2014.12.004]
31. Chitra T, Karunanidhi S. The impact of resilience training on occupational stress, resilience, job satisfaction, and psychological well-being of female police officers. J Police Crim Psychol. 2021;36(1):8-23. [Link] [DOI:10.1007/s11896-018-9294-9]
32. Cole NN, Nonterah CW, Utsey SO, Hook JN, Hubbard RR, Opare-Henaku A, et al. Predictor and moderator effects of ego resilience and mindfulness on the relationship between academic stress and psychological well-being in a sample of Ghanaian college students. J Black Psychol. 2015;41(4):340-57. [Link] [DOI:10.1177/0095798414537939]
33. Sagone E, De Caroli ME. A correlational study on dispositional resilience, psychological well-being, and coping strategies in university students. Am J Educ Res. 2014;2(7):463-71. [Link] [DOI:10.12691/education-2-7-5]
34. Obeidavi A, Elahi N, Saberipour B. Relationship between resilience and occupational stress among the faculty members of Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences. Int J Biomed Public Health. 2018;1(3):136-40. [Link]
35. Mayordomo-Rodríguez T, García-Massó X, Sales-Galán A, Meléndez-Moral JC, Serra-Añó P. Resilience patterns: Improving stress adaptation based on an individual's personal features. Int J Aging Hum Dev. 2015;80(4):316-31. [Link] [DOI:10.1177/0091415015603595]
36. Roohi S, Noroozi H, Yousefi Afrashteh M. Mediating role of resilience and self-efficacy in the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and psychological well-being of Iranian students. Health Educ Health Promot. 2019;7(4):183-90. [Link]
37. Klainin-Yobas P, Vongsirimas N, Ramirez DQ, Sarmiento J, Fernandez Z. Evaluating the relationships among stress, resilience and psychological well-being among young adults: A structural equation modelling approach. BMC Nurs. 2021;20:119. [Link] [DOI:10.1186/s12912-021-00645-9]
38. Bogaerts S, Van Woerkom M, Erbaş Y, De Caluwé E, Garofalo C, Frowijn I, et al. Associations between resilience, psychological well-being, work-related stress and Covid-19 fear in forensic healthcare workers using a network analysis. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12:678895. [Link] [DOI:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.678895]
39. Chow KM, Tang WKF, Chan WHC, Sit WHJ, Choi KC, Chan S. Resilience and well-being of university nursing students in Hong Kong: A cross-sectional study. BMC Med Educ. 2018;18(1):13. [Link] [DOI:10.1186/s12909-018-1119-0]
40. Gupta P, Srivastava S. Work-life conflict and burnout among working women : A mediated moderated model of support and resilience. Int J Organ Anal. 2021;29(3):629-55. [Link] [DOI:10.1108/IJOA-12-2019-1993]
41. Bilodeau J, Marchand A, Demers A. Psychological distress inequality between employed men and women: A gendered exposure model. SSM Popul Health. 2020;11:100626. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100626]
42. Yan S, Xu R, Stratton TD, Kavcic V, Luo D, Hou F, et al. Sex differences and psychological stress: Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in China. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):79. [Link] [DOI:10.1186/s12889-020-10085-w]
43. Ang SY, Uthaman T, Ayre TC, Mordiffi SZ, Ang E, Lopez V. Association between demographics and resilience-a cross-sectional study among nurses in Singapore. Int Nurs Rev. 2018;65(3):459-66. [Link] [DOI:10.1111/inr.12441]
44. McKay T, Walker BR. Mindfulness, self-compassion and wellbeing. Pers Individ Differ. 2021;168:110412. [Link] [DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110412]
45. Varadhan R, Zhu J, Bandeen-Roche K. Identifying predictors of resilience in single-arm studies of pre-post change. Innov Aging. 2023;7(Suppl 1):555-6. [Link] [DOI:10.1093/geroni/igad104.1823]
46. Glas L, Rhebergen D, Widdershoven G, Huisman M, Kok AAL. Finding a balance: Resilience in older adults after depression in later life. Ageing Soc. 2023:1-20. [Link] [DOI:10.1017/S0144686X23000661]
47. Klein RJ, Jacobson NC, Robinson MD. A psychological flexibility perspective on well-being: Emotional reactivity, adaptive choices, and daily experiences. Emotion. 2023;23(4):911-24. [Link] [DOI:10.1037/emo0001159]
| Rights and permissions | |
 |
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |